The Process of Formation and Persistence of Toxic Leadership: A Grounded Theory Discovery Based on Employee Narratives

Document Type : Qualitative Research Paper

Authors

1 Ph.D candidate of Educational Management, Department of Educational Sciences, Faculty of Educational Sciences and Psychology, University of Mohaghegh Ardabili, Ardabil, Iran

2 Professor, Department of Educational Sciences, Faculty of Educational Sciences and Psychology, University of Mohaghegh Ardabili, Ardabil, Iran

3 Associate Professor, Department of Educational Sciences, Faculty of Educational Sciences and Psychology, University of Mohaghegh Ardabili, Ardabil, Iran

4 Professor, Department of Educational Sciences, Faculty of Educational Sciences and Psychology, University of Mohaghegh Ardabili, Ardabil, Iran.

10.22034/jsa.2026.145161.2633

Abstract

Despite research on the destructive consequences of toxic leadership, existing studies have predominantly focused on industrial settings and relied on quantitative, outcome-oriented approaches. Consequently, the processes through which toxic leadership emerges and persists within educational organizations, particularly from the perspective of employees’ lived experiences, remain insufficiently theorized. This research was conducted with the aim of addressing this gap. This study adopted a qualitative grounded theory approach following Strauss and Corbin’s (1998) procedures. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews with 24 employees and subject-matter experts who had direct experience with toxic leadership. Participants were selected using purposive and theoretical sampling, and data collection continued until theoretical saturation was reached. Data analysis involved open, axial, and selective coding. Trustworthiness was ensured through peer debriefing, member checking, and intra-coder consistency via re-analysis.

Findings reveal that toxic leadership is not a static or purely behavioral phenomenon but a dynamic, multi-layered, and context-dependent process. It emerges and is sustained through the interaction of leaders’ motivations and power resources with dysfunctional organizational structures, toxic cultures, and employees’ cognitive–behavioral responses. The analysis generated 359 concepts, 55 components, and 16 core categories, which were integrated into a paradigmatic model encompassing causal, contextual, and intervening conditions, and action/interaction strategies and consequences. This study contributes by conceptualizing toxic leadership as a processual and institutionalized phenomenon embedded in the interplay between leaders, followers, and organizational contexts. The proposed model offers both theoretical advancement and practical insights for preventing, managing, and mitigating toxic leadership.

Keywords

Main Subjects

References

Ahmed, A. K., Atta, M. H. R., El-Monshed, A. H., & Mohamed, A. I. (2024). The effect of toxic leadership on workplace deviance: the mediating effect of emotional exhaustion, and the moderating effect of organizational cynicism. BMC nursing, 23(1), 669.‏ https://doi.org/10.1186/s12912-024-02308-x
 Anastasiou, S. (2025). Counteracting toxic leadership in education: Transforming schools through emotional intelligence and ethical leadership. Administrative Sciences, 15(8), 312. https://doi.org/10.3390/admsci15080312
Avolio, B. J., & Gardner, W. L. (2005). Authentic leadership development: Getting to the root of positive forms of leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 16(3), 315–338. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2005.03.001
Azeez, F., & Aboobaker, N. (2024). Echoes of dysfunction: A thematic exploration of toxic leadership in higher education. Journal of Aggression, Conflict and Peace Research, 16(4), 439–456. https://doi.org/10.1108/JACPR-03-2024-0888
Balaban, F., & Kazancı-Tınmaz, A. (2024). An examination of how toxic leadership behaviors of school principals relate to teachers’ perceived stress. International Journal of Contemporary Educational Research, 11(1), 86–99. https://doi.org/10.52380/ijcer.2024.11.1.538
Bashokooh-Ajirloo, H., Zahed Babolan, A., Akbari, T., & Khalegkhah, A. (2022). Qualitative And Data Base Model of Teachers' Talent Development (Case Study: Ardabil Primary School Teachers). Journal of Research in Teaching, 10(2), 144-169. https://doi.org/10.34785/J012.2022.031 [In Persian]
Chamberlain, L. J., & Hodson, R. (2010). Toxic work environments: What helps and what hurts. Sociological Perspectives, 53(4), 455-477.‏ https://doi.org/10.1525/sop.2010.53.4.455
Creswell, J. W. (2007). Qualitative inquiry&research design: choosin among five approaches. Sage publication.
Coldwell, D. A. (2019). Negative influences of the 4th industrial revolution on the workplace: Towards a theoretical model of entropic citizen behavior in toxic organizations. International journal of environmental research and public health, 16(15), 2670.‏ https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16152670
Daniel, T. A. (2017). Managing toxic emotions at work: HR’s unique role as the “organizational shock absorber”. Employment Relations Today, 43(4), 13-19.‏ DOI 10.1002/ert.21599
Demirdağ, S. (2018). The perceptions of academicians on organizational toxicity. Kastamonu Education Journal, 26(4), 1319-1334, https://doi.org/10.24106/kefdergi.346652
Dickson, R. K., & Isaiah, O. (2024). Overcoming toxic work environment through effective leadership strategies. International Journal of Business Management and Economic Review, 7(1), 182-202. http://doi.org/10.35409/IJBMER.2024.3559‏
Eisner, D. C. (2020). Identifying and eliminating the toxic work environment in the clinical setting: a narrative review. Journal of Health Ethics Administration, 10(2), 1-14.‏ https://doi.org/10.22461/jhea.9.7169
Einarsen, S., Aasland, M. S., & Skogstad, A. (2007). Destructive leadership behaviour: A definition and conceptual model. The Leadership Quarterly, 18(3), 207-216. DOI: 10.1016/j.leaqua.2007.03.002
Esmaeili, F. , Hosseingholizadeh, R. and Sadeghinezhad, M. (2025). The Role of Intra- and Inter-School Professional Interactions in Teacher Professional Learning: A Social Network Analysis of Primary Schools in Mashhad. School Administration, 13(1), 36-51. doi: 10.22034/jsa.2025.143541.2574
Garcia, K. (2020). Toxic Leadership in Hr (Doctoral dissertation, Creighton University). https://B2n.ir/hd9604‏
Gholami, P. and Bolandhematan, K. (2025). Investigating the Role of School Principals in Attracting Teachers to Schools based on Invitational Theory: A Mixed Method Research. School Administration, 13(1), 1-19. doi: 10.22034/jsa.2024.141501.2526
 Green, J. E. (2014). Toxic Leadership in Educational Organizations. Education Leadership Review, 15(1), 18-33.‏ https://B2n.ir/ys2824
Hassanein, F. R., Mohammadi, S., & Zargar, P. (2025). Toxic leadership and job satisfaction in the middle eastern education sector: the influence of organizational culture and trust. Administrative Sciences, 15(5), 171. https://doi.org/10.3390/admsci15050171‏
Hughes, B. C. (2022). Examining toxic leadership: An integrated framework for organizational recovery. Journal of Behavioral and Applied Management, 22(3), 309-344.‏ https://B2n.ir/dj7363
Jonason, P. K., & Webster, G. D. (2010). The Dirty Dozen: A Concise Measure of the Dark Triad. Psychological Assessment, 22(2), 420-432. DOI: 10.1037/a0019265
Khalaf, H. (2024). Toxic Leadership and Workplace Climate: Exploring the Role of Followers in Maintaining a Positive Organisational Culture. Available at SSRN 5109330.‏ https://B2n.ir/qj6674
Khasawneh, S., Abu-Alruz, J., Oliemat, A., Hailat, S., & Bataineh, O. (2024). Toxic leadership in higher education: A typology of behaviours. Research in Post-Compulsory Education, 29(3), 363–380. https://doi.org/10.1080/13596748.2024.2371644
Krasikova, D. V., Green, S. G., & LeBreton, J. M. (2013). “Destructive Leadership: A Theoretical Review, Integration, and Future Research Agenda.” Journal of Management, 39(5), 1308-1338. DOI: 10.1177/0149206312471388
Lipman-Blumen, J. (2005). The allure of toxic leaders: Why followers rarely escape their clutches. Ivey Business Journal, 69(3), 1-40.‏ https://B2n.ir/nm9479
Maxwell, S. M. (2015). An exploration of human resource personnel and toxic leadership. Walden University.‏ Walden Dissertations and Doctoral Studies Collection https://B2n.ir/zk3487
Milosevic, I., Maric, S., & Lončar, D. (2020). Defeating the toxic boss: The nature of toxic leadership and the role of followers. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 27(2), 117-137.‏ https://doi.org/10.1177/1548051819833374
McCulloch, A. (2017). Toxic work environments (Doctoral dissertation, Carleton University.‏
Mohammadallizade, M., Taghipourian, M. J., & Farokh Seresht, B. (2024). Analyzing the drivers of toxic leadership in organizations using Meta-synthesis. Journal of Executive Management, 15(30), 7-27.‏ DOI 10.22080/jem.2023.24202.3795 [In Persian]
Padilla, A., Hogan, R., & Kaiser, R. B. (2007). The toxic triangle: Destructive leaders, susceptible followers, and conducive environments. The Leadership Quarterly, 18(3), 176–194. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2007.03.001.
Petrova1, I., & Taghikilani, L. (2024). Building a Culture of Excellence by Transforming Toxic Corporate Environments. Available at SSRN 5045633. https://B2n.ir/py4315
Poursafar, M., & Afkaneh, M. (2020). Typology of toxic employees in governmental organizations. Strategic Management Thought, 14(2), 493-552.‏ DOI 10.30497/smt.2021.240437.3197‏ [In Persian]
Priesemuth, M., & Schminke, M. (2024). Toxic work climates: An integrative review and development of a new construct and theoretical framework. Journal of Applied Psychology, 109(9), 1355.‏ https://dx.doi.org/10.1037/apl0001188
Rahmani, E. , Ghanbari, S. and Ardalan, M. R. (2022). The Effect of Managers' Toxic Leadership on Creating Organizational Trauma in Secondary Schools. School Administration, 10(2), 42-56.
Rasool, S. F., Wang, M., Tang, M., Saeed, A., & Iqbal, J. (2021). How toxic workplace environment effects the employee engagement: the mediating role of organizational support and employee wellbeing. International journal of environmental research and public health, 18(5), 2294. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18052294
Ross, D. B. (2016). Creating a Survey for Analyzing a Culture of Narcissistic, Toxic, and Power Behaviors in an Organization.‏ https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/51098323.pdf
Saleem, F., Andi, H. K., Jamil, A., & Saba, F. (2020). SURVIVING THE NARCISSIST’S PSYCHOLOGICAL GAME: DISARMING THE TOXIC WORKPLACE COWORKERS.‏ https://B2n.ir/zd1777
Saban, J. (2024). Toxic management-how to discover, prevent and cure negative impacts to productivity of individuals, teams and organizations (Doctoral dissertation, Technische Universität Wien.‏ https://B2n.ir/nq9161
Siddiqui, H., & Iqbal, J. (2024). What Happens When a Leader is Toxic? A Qualitative Investigation. Bulletin of Business and Economics (BBE), 13(1.‏ https://doi.org/10.61506/01.00225 [In Persian]
Schmidt, J. A. (2008). Toxic leadership: Recognizing and avoiding its harms. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 29(7), 923-946. DOI: 10.1002/job.555
Taştan, S. B. (2017). Toxic workplace environment: In search for the toxic behaviours in organizations with a research in healthcare sector. Postmodern Openings, 8(1), 83-109. http://dx.doi.org/10.18662/po/2017.0801.07
Tavanti, M. (2011). Managing toxic leaders: Dysfunctional patterns in organizational leadership and how to deal with them. Human Resource Management, 2011, 127-136.‏ https://B2n.ir/gw4989
Tepper, B. J. (2000). Consequences of abusive supervision. Academy of Management Journal, 43(2), 178–190. https://doi.org/10.2307/1556375
Van Rooij, B., & Fine, A. (2018). Toxic corporate culture: Assessing organizational processes of deviancy. Administrative Sciences, 8(3), 23. https://doi.org/10.3390/admsci8030023
Vedhathiri, T. (2023). Strategies to Resolve Toxic Leadership Actions in Engineering Institutions which Impede Faculty Performance and Innovation.‏ https://doi.org/10.32388/OEK247
Watt, S. R., Javidi, M., & Normore, A. H. (2016). Increasing darkness: combining toxic leadership and volatility, uncertainty, complexity, and ambiguity (VUCA). In The dark side of leadership: Identifying and overcoming unethical practice in organizations (Vol. 26, pp. 195-206). Emerald Group Publishing Limited.‏ DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/S1479-366020160000026015
Wolor, M., et al. (2025). Counteracting Toxic Leadership in Education: Transforming Schools through Constructive Practices. Behaviors, 15(8), Article 312. https://doi.org/10.3390/behaviors15080312
Yaghi, A., & Yaghi, M. (2021). Evaluating organizational hypocrisy within universities as toxic leadership behavior. Public Integrity, 23(4), 385-400.‏ https://doi.org/10.1080/10999922.2021.1888536
School Administration
Volume 13, Issue 4
January 2026
Pages 73-85

Files

History

  • Receive Date: 01 August 2025
  • Revise Date: 18 October 2025
  • Accept Date: 20 December 2025

Share

How to cite

Statistics